New study reveals that the Black Death was actually caused by human ectoparasites, not rats.

Recently-emerged data reveals a surprising fact about the Black Death, the epidemic which killed approximately 50 million people in the 14^th century. While many historians and medical scientists believed that rats were the primary cause of plague throughout Europe, the new study reveals that this may not be the case.

Black Death Spread by Humans, Study Claims

Published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, this study brought together scientists from the universities of Oslo and Ferrara.  Acting on the assumption that rats were the primary spreading vector of the Yersinia pestis bacterium, the scientists reconstructed a contagion dissemination computer model.

For comparison, the team of scientists used human and airborne transmission vectors. After running the numbers, to their bewilderment, the researchers discovered that the rats-based rate of spreading was not consistent with the historical records.

Subsequently, the airborne model returned the same results as the rodent-based on. After analyzing the data on human transmission, the scientists realized that the rate of spread was consistent with the facts.

Further research revealed that the real perpetrators behind the Black Death were not the rats but the ectoparasites found on the human body. The scientists discovered that human fleas and lice were more likely to carry around and disseminate the Yersinia pestis bacterium compared to rats.

One of the scientists declared that:

While it is commonly assumed that rats and their fleas spread plague during the Second Pandemic, there is little historical and archaeological support for such a claim.

Conclusion

Even though the newly-discovered Black Death data might be more consistent with what we know so far about the contagion, there are still many questions left unanswered. However, in time, maybe all the little dents lefts behind by the deadliest epidemic the world has experience will be filled.

Image source: Wikipedia

This year, the Quadrantids won’t shine as bright as they used to several years ago

STATES CHRONICLE – This year has started big in terms of astronomical events but, to our disappointment, not all of them are spectacular. The first full moon of January was a supermoon, and it offered us a breathtaking show on the first night of the year. Shortly after, we should enjoy the first meteor shower, the Quadrantids. Unfortunately, this might turn out extremely difficult to watch.

The Quadrantids, the first meteor shower of the year

The Quadrantids should appear on the dark sky Wednesday night up until early morning on Thursday, and should be visible in the Northern hemisphere. However, it’s hard to tell when they would peak. For many years, the first meteor shower of this year was well-known to be bright, displaying an impressive number of 50 to 100 visible falling meteors.

Unfortunately, this year, the show won’t be as spectacular as we are used to. Given their proximity to the Super Wolf Moon, the Quadrantids will more likely be eclipsed by its blinding light. This happens as the moon will continue shining even a few days after reaching totality. Even if this year’s shower will consist of about 40 meteors per hour, the remaining light of the moon will make it hard for us to spot them.

The meteor shower won’t be too visible

Most meteor showers visible on our planet are remaining pieces of comets. However, the Quadrantids are different. Researchers think they are remnants of an asteroid, 2003 EH1. They say this formation used to be a comet, but time removed its ice cover and all the other layers typical of such a cosmic object.

Last year was extremely rich in meteor showers and spectacular astronomic events. Unfortunately, 2018 is a little poorer, with a smaller offer of events. Even so, whenever there’s something exciting to watch on the sky, make sure you choose a relatively isolated place, with few light pollution. Also, take some time to adjust your vision to complete darkness.
Image Source: Flickr

Ben Barres made great discoveries in the field of neurobiology

STATES CHRONICLE – The first transgender neuroscientists who made great discoveries about how the human brain functioned lost the battle with pancreatic cancer. Dr. Ben Barres led an intense fight with the disease for almost two years, and died on Wednesday at the age of 63. He is most well-known for his research on the glial cells.

Barres held a remarkable work in the domain of neurobiology

Barres was a professor at Stanford University, where he also headed the department of neurobiology. He was extremely interested in the study of various diseases which affected the brain and, each time, he noticed how the glial cells suffered. This sparked his interest, so he continued the analysis of these cells. Instead of standing passively in the neural processes, they turned out to play a more important role.

Barres is well-known for many academic achievements. He published 167 scientific papers, but also fought for the rights of women in the science world. He was born a woman, and became the first transgender person who was admitted as a member of the National Academy of Science.

Everyone was shocked to hear of his passing

The news of his death struck the scientific community. Everyone who knew him, including his students, colleagues, and any others who admired his scientific works posted their sad messages and regrets on Twitter. His students saw him as a mentor, his colleagues admired him for his achievements, and the entire world of science was grateful for his great findings related to the brain and glial cells.

In April 2006, Barres discovered he had cancer. At the time, he had to give up his position as the chair of the neurobiology department at Stanford, which was taken over by Thomas Clandinin. In the last two years, he also developed pancreatic cancer, which took such an aggressive form that he had to fight to survive these dire years.

Honoured to have worked with such a brilliant neuroscientist. RIP Ben Barres https://t.co/7EB6uyo4Og

— Nature Rev Immunol (@NatRevImmunol) December 28, 2017

Sad to have lost a beloved med school professor, trailblazing scientist, and all around beautiful human being. Today I'm fondly remembering his epic chalk talk on action potentials. https://t.co/vFjTBeyfGH

— Shoa Clarke, MD PhD (@ShoaClarke) December 28, 2017

Image Source: Pixabay

Researchers observed bow waves for the first time during the August eclipse

STATES CHRONICLE – The August 2017 eclipse was a major astronomical event, which caused significant effects on our planet’s atmosphere. These effects resemble some waves, and represent a phenomenon which has been explained in theory, but has never been explained before.

The great eclipse formed bow waves in the ionosphere

Researchers from the University of Tromsø and the Haystack Observatory of MIT decided to study the effects the grand eclipse had on our planet. This way, they managed to observe for the first time the waves it formed in the ionosphere. With the help of 2,000 detectors spread everywhere on the US territory, they collected data from the satellites which helped them locate these waves.

The existence of these formations was theorized, and they were well-known as bow waves. However, these observations constituted the first practical evidence of the waves. The study on the phenomenon was published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.

This is the first time when researchers observe bow waves

During a lunar eclipse, the moon passes in front of the sun, blocking its light from reaching Earth. However, it doesn’t only block the light, but also the heat. Therefore, the area overshadowed by the moon sees a sudden drop in light ant temperature. Also, as the location is not fixed, but it moves, this motion leads to the apparition of a series of bow waves in the ionosphere. In fact, these waves are the lower heat energy which moved close to the atmosphere.

The ionosphere is often disturbed by all kinds of phenomena, most of the times including gravitational waves. However, the observations showed this energy came at huge speeds, which made it impossible for other kinds of waves to be present. Researchers knew bow waves must exist, but only this eclipse allowed them to observe the phenomena.
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons

Cassini keeps revealing new information on the mysteries of Saturn

STATES CHRONICLE – The series of amazing findings achieved by Cassini don’t seem to stop. As the scientists keep analyzing the observations made by the spacecraft, they discover more unique phenomena which take place around Saturn. The latest discovery regards the rings, and highlights a new function for them. It turns out that the shadow they cast upon the planet has the capacity of changing its atmosphere.

Saturn’s rings affect its atmosphere

Saturn’s rings are made of dust and rocks, and they seem to be interacting with the planet more than we thought. The rings cast a shadow on the planet, just like any other object situated so close to a celestial body would do. As soon as Cassini entered the space between the rings and the planet, they noticed how this shadow actually interacts with the atmosphere.

The shadow is formed as the rings block the sunlight from reaching the surface of the planet. At the same time, they also block the UV radiation which comes with the light. As this happens, those regions of the atmosphere where the shades are cast undergo a lower ionization process.

These formations block radiation and affect ionization

Researchers compared the ionosphere of both the northern and the southern parts of the planet, and discovered some significant differences. This ionosphere is made up of charged particles. They get charged as soon as the energy coming from the sunlight activates their electrons. Therefore, if some regions of the ionosphere are shaded, then the charging process is affected.

Saturn has plenty of rings, but the major ones are A, B, and C. After studying Cassini’s findings, researchers established that A and B affect ionization in the southern area, as they prevent sunlight from reaching the surface. These rings were found to remain opaque in front of radiation, while the others could let sunlight pass through. All these findings have been collected in a study in the journal Science.
Image Source: Cassini – NASA